world neurosurgery开源的吗
The journal's mission is to:Create a principal international information conduit for establishing modernity of neurosurgical practice for the global community through contemporary and innovative journalistic communication technologies and channels.Serve as a forum for scientific, clinical, educational, social, cultural, economic, and political ideas and issues for global neurosurgery.Act as a primary intellectual catalyst for the field.Enhance and move toward complete global communication related to all aspects of current and future neurosurgical practice, research, and progress.
PubMed查到的有些文献怎么在论文中填写期号、卷号及页码
搜索编号即可找到这篇文章，文章主页也并没有显示页码之类的信息，这也表明这个期刊不是使用通常的页码方式。 一般来说期刊是有卷号和期号的，但也有些期刊只有期号而没有卷号，是以其出版年作为卷号。以Nature和PNAS为例，Nature是两个月为一卷，每周为一期，PNAS是一年为一卷，每周为一期，用户在引用的时候一般列出卷和文章的页码或者起始页码，期号一般是不给出来的，或者如果给出来也是跟在卷后面的括号里。 扩展资料： 注意事项： 1、所列文献范围过宽，凡所参阅过的均列出其中，如教材、内部刊物、获奖过但并未公开发表的成果报告等。 2所列文献过多，如有些教师认为文献越多越好，将参阅过的文章书籍后的参考文献也悉数收录，有些文献作者并没有亲自阅读，只是认为跟文章搭点边，也凑数其后。 3、所列文献过少，有些老师怕自己文章引述别人东西太多，被人认为抄袭，故意将一些重要参考文献略去。 4、对文献的理解偏面，以为只有引用文献原文才需要列出。 参考资料来源：百度百科-PubMed 参考资料来源：百度百科-期刊卷号
表示科目的英语单词
哲学 Philosophy 马克思主义哲学 Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学 Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学 Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学 Logic 伦理学 Ethics 美学 Aesthetics 宗教学 Science of Religion 科学技术哲学 Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学 Economics 理论经济学 Theoretical Economics 政治经济学 Political Economy 经济思想史 History of Economic Thought 经济史 History of Economic 西方经济学 Western Economics 世界经济 World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学 Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学 Applied Economics 国民经济学 National Economics 区域经济学 Regional Economics 法学 Law Communist Movement 中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设) History of the Communist Party of China (including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building) 马克思主义理论与思想政治教育 Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics 国际政治学 International Politics 国际关系学 International Relations 外交学 Diplomacy 社会学 Sociology 社会学 Sociology 人口学 Demography 人类学 Anthropology 民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature) 民族学 Ethnology 民族学 Ethnology 马克思主义民族理论与政策 Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy 中国少数民族经济 Chinese Ethnic Economics 中国少数民族史 Chinese Ethnic History 中国少数民族艺术 Chinese Ethnic Art 教育学 Education 教育学 Education Science 教育学原理 Educational Principle 课程与教学论 Curriculum and Teaching Methodology 教育史 History of Education 比较教育学 Comparative Education 学前教育学 Pre-school Education 高等教育学 Higher Education 成人教育学 Adult Education 职业技术教育学 Vocational and Technical Education 特殊教育学 Special Education 教育技术学 Education Technology 心理学 Psychology 基础心理学 Basic Psychology 发展与心理学 Developmental and Educational Psychology 应用心理学 Applied Psychology 体育学 Science of Physical Culture and Sports 体育人文社会学 Humane and Sociological Science of Sports 运动人体科学 Human Movement Science 体育教育训练学 Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training 民族传统体育学 Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports 文学 Literature 中国语言文学 Chinese Literature 文艺学 Theory of Literature and Art 语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 汉语言文字学 Chinese Philology 中国古典文献学 Study of Chinese Classical Text 中国古代文学 Ancient Chinese Literature 中国现当代文学 Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature 中国少数民族语言文学 Chinese Ethnic Language and Literature 比较文学与世界文学 Comparative Literature and World Literature 外国语言文学 Foreign Languages and Literatures 英语语言文学 English Language and Literature 俄语语言文学 Russian Language and Literature 法语语言文学 French Language and Literature 德语语言文学 German Language and Literature 日语语言文学 Japanese Language and Literature 印度语言文学 Indian Language and Literature 西班牙语语言文学 Spanish Language and Literature 阿拉伯语语言文学 Arabic Language and Literature 欧洲语言文学 European Language and Literature 亚非语言文学 Asian-African Language and Literature 外国语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics in Foreign Languages 新闻传播学 Journalism and Communication 新闻学 Journalism 传播学 Communication 艺术学 Art 艺术学 Art Theory 音乐学 Music 美术学 Fine Arts 设计艺术学 Artistic Design 戏剧戏曲学 Theater and Chinese Traditional Opera 电影学 Film 广播电视艺术学 Radio and television Art 舞蹈学 Dance 历史学 History 历史学 History 史学理论及史学史 Historical Theories and History of Historical Science 考古学及博物馆学 Archaeology and Museology 历史地理学 Historical Geography 历史文献学(含敦煌学、古文字学) Studies of Historical Literature (including Paleography and Studies of Dunhuang) 专门史 History of Particular Subjects 中国古代史 Ancient Chinese History 中国近现代史 Modern and Contemporary Chinese History 世界史 World History 理学 Natural Science 数学 Mathematics 基础数学 Fundamental Mathematics 计算数学 Computational Mathematics 概率论与数理统计 Probability and Mathematical Statistics 应用数学 Applied mathematics 运筹学与控制论 Operational Research and Cybernetics 物理学 Physics 理论物理 Theoretical Physics 粒子物理与原子核物理 Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics 原子与分子物理 Atomic and Molecular Physics 等离子体物理 Plasma Physics 凝聚态物理 Condensed Matter Physics 声学 Acoustics 光学 Optics 无线电物理 Radio Physics 化学 Chemistry 无机化学 Inorganic Chemistry 分析化学 Analytical Chemistry 有机化学 Organic Chemistry 物理化学（含化学物理） Physical Chemistry (including Chemical Physics) 高分子化学与物理 Chemistry and Physics of Polymers 天文学 Astronomy 天体物理 Astrophysics 天体测量与天体力学 Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics 地理学 Geography 自然地理学 Physical Geography 人文地理学 Human Geography 地图学与地理信息系统 Cartography and Geography Information System 大气科学 Atmospheric Sciences 气象学 Meteorology 大气物理学与大气环境 Atmospheric Physics and Atmospheric Environment 海洋科学 Marine Sciences 物理海洋学 Physical Oceanography 海洋化学 Marine Chemistry 海洋生理学 Marine Biology 海洋地质学 Marine Geology 地球物理学 Geophysics 固体地球物理学 Solid Earth Physics 空间物理学 Space Physics 地质学 Geology 矿物学、岩石学、矿床学 Mineralogy, Petrology, Mineral Deposit Geology 地球化学 Geochemistry 古生物学与地层学（含古人类学） Paleontology and Stratigraphy (including Paleoanthropology) 构造地质学 Structural Geology 第四纪地质学 Quaternary Geology 生物学 Biology 植物学 Botany 动物学 Zoology 生理学 Physiology 水生生物学 Hydrobiology 微生物学 Microbiology 神经生物学 Neurobiology 遗传学 Genetics 发育生物学 Developmental Biology 细胞生物学 Cell Biology 生物化学与分子生物学 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 生物物理学 Biophysics 生态学 Ecology 系统科学 Systems Science 系统理论 Systems Theory 系统分析与集成 Systems Analysis and Integration 科学技术史 History of Science and Technology 工学 Engineering 力学 Mechanics 一般力学与力学基础 General and Fundamental Mechanics 固体力学 Solid Mechanics 流体力学 Fluid Mechanics 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics 机械工程 Mechanical Engineering 机械制造及其自动化 Mechanical Manufacture and Automation 机械电子工程 Mechatronic Engineering 机械设计与理论 Mechanical Design and Theory 车辆工程 Vehicle Engineering 光学工程 Optical Engineering 仪器科学与技术 Instrument Science and Technology 精密仪器及机械 Precision Instrument and Machinery 测试计量技术及仪器 Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments 材料科学与工程 Materials Science and Engineering 材料物理与化学 Materials Physics and Chemistry 材料学 Materialogy 材料加工工程 Materials Processing Engineering 冶金工程 Metallurgical Engineering 冶金物理化学 Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy 钢铁冶金 Ferrous Metallurgy 有色金属冶金 Non-ferrous Metallurgy 动力工程及工程热物理 Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics 工程热物理 Engineering Thermophysics 热能工程 Thermal Power Engineering 动力机械及工程 Power Machinery and Engineering 流体机械及工程 Fluid Machinery and Engineering 制冷及低温工程 Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering 化工过程机械 Chemical Process Equipment 电气工程 Electrical Engineering 电机与电器 Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus 电力系统及其自动化 Power System and its Automation 高电压与绝缘技术 High Voltage and Insulation Technology 电力电子与电力传动 Power Electronics and Power Drives 电工理论与新技术 Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering 电子科学与技术 Electronics Science and Technology 物理电子学 Physical Electronics 电路与系统 Circuits and Systems 微电子学与固体电子学 Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics 电磁场与微波技术 Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology 信息与通信工程 Information and Communication Engineering 通信与信息系统 Communication and Information Systems 信号与信息处理 Signal and Information Processing 控制科学与工程 Control Science and Engineering 控制理论与控制工程 Control Theory and Control Engineering 检测技术与自动化装置 Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment 系统工程 Systems Engineering 模式识别与智能系统 Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems 导航、制导与控制 Navigation, Guidance and Control 计算机科学与技术 Computer Science and Technology 计算机软件与理论 Computer Software and Theory 计算机系统结构 Computer Systems Organization 计算机应用技术 Computer Applied Technology 建筑学 Architecture 建筑历史与理论 Architectural History and Theory 建筑设计及其理论 Architectural Design and Theory 城市规划与设计（含风景园林规划与设计） Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design) 建筑技术科学 Building Technology Science 土木工程 Civil Engineering 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering 结构工程 Structural Engineering 市政工程 Municipal Engineering 供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程 Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering 防灾减灾工程及防护工程 Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering 桥梁与隧道工程 Bridge and Tunnel Engineering 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering 水文学及水资源 Hydrology and Water Resources 水力学及河流动力学 Hydraulics and River Dynamics 水工结构工程 Hydraulic Structure Engineering 水利水电工程 Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering 港口、海岸及近海工程 Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering 测绘科学与技术 Surveying and Mapping 大地测量学与测量工程 Geodesy and Survey Engineering 摄影测量与遥感 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 地图制图学与地理信息工程 Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering 化学工程与技术 Chemical Engineering and Technology 化学工程 Chemical Engineering 化学工艺 Chemical Technology 生物化工 Biochemical Engineering 应用化学 Applied Chemistry 工业催化 Industrial Catalysis 地质资源与地质工程 Geological Resources and Geological Engineering 矿产普查与勘探 Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration 地球探测与信息技术 Geodetection and Information Technology 地质工程 Geological Engineering 矿业工程 Mineral Engineering 采矿工程 Mining Engineering 矿物加工工程 Mineral Processing Engineering 安全技术及工程 Safety Technology and Engineering 石油与天然气工程 Oil and Natural Gas Engineering 油气井工程 Oil-Gas Well Engineering 油气田开发工程 Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering 油气储运工程 Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering 纺织科学与工程 Textile Science and Engineering 纺织工程 Textile Engineering 纺织材料与纺织品设计 Textile Material and Textiles Design 纺织化学与染整工程 Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering 服装设计与工程 Clothing Design and Engineering 轻工技术与工程 The Light Industry Technology and Engineering 制浆造纸工程 Pulp and Paper Engineering 制糖工程 Sugar Engineering 发酵工程 Fermentation Engineering 皮革化学与工程 Leather Chemistry and Engineering 交通运输工程 Communication and Transportation Engineering 道路与铁道工程 Highway and Railway Engineering 交通信息工程及控制 Traffic Information Engineering & Control 交通运输规划与管理 Transportation Planning and Management 载运工具运用工程 Vehicle Operation Engineering 船舶与海洋工程 Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 船舶与海洋结构物设计制造 Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure 轮机工程 Marine Engine Engineering 水声工程 Underwater Acoustics Engineering 航空宇航科学与技术 Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology 飞行器设计 Flight Vehicle Design 航空宇航推进理论与工程 Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering 航空宇航器制造工程 Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle 人机与环境工程 Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering 兵器科学与技术 Armament Science and Technology 武器系统与运用工程 Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering 兵器发射理论与技术 Armament Launch Theory and Technology 火炮、自动武器与弹药工程 Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering 军事化学与烟火技术 Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics 核科学与技术 Nuclear Science and Technology 核能科学与工程 Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering 核燃料循环与材料 Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials 核技术及应用 Nuclear Technology and Applications 辐射防护及环境保护 Radiation and Environmental Protection 农业工程 Agricultural Engineering 农业机械化工程 Agricultural Mechanization Engineering 农业水土工程 Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering 农业生物环境与能源工程 Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering 农业电气化与自动化 Agricultural Electrification and Automation 林业工程 Forestry Engineering 森林工程 Forest Engineering 木材科学与技术 Wood Science and Technology 林产化学加工工程 Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products 环境科学与工程 Environmental Science and Engineering 环境科学 Environmental Science 环境工程 Environmental Engineering 生物医学工程 Biomedical Engineering 食品科学与工程 Food Science and Engineering 食品科学 Food Science 粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程 Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering 农产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products 水产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products 农学 Agriculture 作物学 Crop Science 作物栽培学与耕作学 Crop Cultivation and Farming System 作物遗传育种学 Crop Genetics and Breeding 园艺学 Horticulture 果树学 Pomology 蔬菜学 Olericulture 茶学 Tea Science 农业资源利用学 Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources 土壤学 Soil Science 植物营养学 Plant Nutrition 植物保护学 Plant Protection 植物病理学 Plant Pathology 农业昆虫与害虫防治 Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control 农药学 Pesticide Science 畜牧学 Animal Science 动物遗传育种与繁殖 Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Science 动物营养与饲料科学 Animal Nutrition and Feed Science 草业科学 Practaculture Science 特种经济动物饲养学（含蚕、蜂等） The Rearing of Special-type Economic Animals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.) 兽医学 Veterinary Medicine 基础兽医学 Basic Veterinary Medicine 预防兽医学 Preventive Veterinary Medicine 临床兽医学 Clinical Veterinary Medicine 林学 Forestry 林木遗传育种学 Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding 森林培育学 Silviculture 森林保护学 Forest Protection 森林经理学 Forest Management 野生动植物保护与利用 Wildlife Conservation and Utilization 园林植物与观赏园艺 Ornamental Plants and Horticulture 水土保持与荒漠化防治 Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating 水产学 Fisheries Science 水产养殖学 Aquaculture Science 捕捞学 Fishing Science 渔业资源学 Science of Fisheries Resources 医学 Medicine 基础医学 Basic Medicine 人体解剖与组织胚胎学 Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology 免疫学 Immunology 病原生物学 Pathogenic Organisms 病理学与病理生理学 Pathology and Pathophysiology 法医学 Forensic Medicine 放射医学 Radiation Medicine 航空航天与航海医学 Aerospace and Nautical medicine 临床医学 Clinical Medicine 内科学（含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学） Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases) 儿科学 Pediatrics 老年医学 Geriatrics 神经病学 Neurology 精神病与精神卫生学 Psychiatry and Mental Health 皮肤病与性病学 Dermatology and Venereology 影像医学与核医学 Imaging and Nuclear Medicine 临床检验诊断学 Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics 护理学 Nursing 外科学（含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学） Surgery (General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery) 妇产科学 Obstetrics and Gynecology 眼科学 Ophthalmic Specialty 耳鼻咽喉科学 Otolaryngology 肿瘤学 Oncology 康复医学与理疗学 Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy 运动医学 Sports Medicine 麻醉学 Anesthesiology 急诊医学 Emergency Medicine 口腔医学 Stomatology 口腔基础医学 Basic Science of Stomatology 口腔临床医学 Clinical Science of Stomatology 公共卫生与预防医学 Public Health and Preventive Medicine 流行病与卫生统计学 Epidemiology and Health Statistics 劳动卫生与环境卫生学 Occupational and Environmental Health 营养与食品卫生学 Nutrition and Food Hygiene 儿少卫生与妇幼保健学 Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health 卫生毒理学 Hygiene Toxicology 军事预防医学 Military Preventive Medicine 中医学 Chinese Medicine 中医基础理论 Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine 中医临床基础 Clinical Foundation of Chinese Medicine 中医医史文献 History and Literature of Chinese Medicine 方剂学 Formulas of Chinese Medicine 中医诊断学 Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine 中医内科学 Chinese Internal Medicine 中医外科学 Surgery of Chinese Medicine 中医骨伤科学 Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine 中医妇科学 Gynecology of Chinese Medicine 中医儿科学 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine 中医五官科学 Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine 针灸推拿学 Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine 民族医学 Ethnomedicine 中西医结合医学 Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine 中西医结合基础医学 Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative 中西医结合临床医学 Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine 药学 Pharmaceutical Science 药物化学 Medicinal Chemistry 药剂学 Pharmaceutics 生药学 Pharmacognosy 药物分析学 Pharmaceutical Analysis 微生物与生化药学 Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy 药理学 Pharmacology 中药学 Science of Chinese Pharmacology 军事学 Military Science 军事思想学及军事历史学 Military Thought and Military History 军事思想学 Military Thought 军事历史学 Military History 战略学 Science of Strategy 军事战略学 Military Strategy 战争动员学 War Mobilization 战役学 Science of Operations 联合战役学 Joint Operation 军种战役学（含第二炮兵战役学） Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force) 战术学 Science of Tactics 合同战术学 Combined-Arms Tactics 兵种战术学 Branch Tactics 军队指挥学 Science of Command 作战指挥学 Combat Command 军事运筹学 Military Operation Research 军事通信学 Military Communication 军事情报学 Military Intelligence 密码学 Cryptography 军事教育训练学 （含军事体育学） Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training) 管理学 Management Science 管理科学与工程 Management Science and Engineering 工商管理学 Science of Business Administration 会计学 Accounting 企业管理学（含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学） Corporate Management (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management) 旅游管理学 Tourist Management 技术经济及管理学 Technology Economy and Management 农林经济管理学 Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management 农业经济管理学 Agricultural Economics & Management 林业经济管理学 Forestry Economics & Management 公共管理学 Science of Public Management 这些，希望能帮到你 ^_^
关于医大
先看国内的，国外的在后面 2005中国大学医学50强 排名 等级 校 名 1 A++ 中国协和医科大学 2 A++ 北京大学 3 A++ 复旦大学 4 A+ 中山大学 5 A+ 上海第二医科大学 6 A+ 华中科技大学 7 A 四川大学 8 A 中南大学 9 A 首都医科大学 10 A 浙江大学 11 A 中国医科大学 12 A 吉林大学 13 B+ 武汉大学 14 B+ 山东大学 15 B+ 中国药科大学 16 B+ 河北医科大学 17 B+ 南京医科大学 18 B+ 北京中医药大学 19 B+ 哈尔滨医科大学 20 B+ 天津医科大学 21 B+ 重庆医科大学 22 B+ 暨南大学 23 B+ 苏州大学 24 B+ 上海交通大学 25 B 南京大学 26 B 西安交通大学 27 B 沈阳药科大学 28 B 福建医科大学 29 B 青岛大学 30 B 广东医学院 31 B 山西医科大学 32 B 郑州大学 33 B 清华大学 34 B 广州中医药大学 35 B 东南大学 36 B 广州医学院 37 C+ 安徽医科大学 38 C+ 兰州大学 39 C+ 上海中医药大学 40 C+ 徐州医学院 41 C+ 广西医科大学 42 C+ 汕头大学 43 C+ 温州医学院 44 C+ 昆明医学院 45 C+ 大连医科大学 46 C+ 南京中医药大学 47 C+ 厦门大学 48 C+ 南通大学 49 C 同济大学 50 C 江西医学院 1:瑞典 瑞典的卡罗林斯卡医学院在生物学，医学方面的专业闻名世界，专业排名全球第34位,卡罗林斯卡医学院以评选诺贝尔医学奖获得者而著称于世。 2:德国 德国在医学领域的研究是领先于世界的，海德堡大学的医学院被列为德国医学专业第一。 3:俄罗斯 莫斯科国立医科大学是前苏联第一流的医科大学，是欧洲十所最好的医科大学之一。在世界健康组织的高校排名中位于第三位，在该校所获得的学历被全世界所承认。 美国的 排名 大学名称 英文校名 所属州别 1 哈佛大学 Harvard University 麻塞诸塞州 2 圣路易士华盛顿大学* Washington University in St.Louis 密苏里州 3 约翰?霍普金斯大学 Johns Hopkins University 马里兰州 4 杜克大学 Duke University 北卡罗来纳州 4 宾州大学 University of Pennsylvania 宾夕法尼亚州 6 加州大学旧金山分校 University of California–San Francisco 加利福尼亚州 7 密西根大学安娜堡校区 University of Michigan–Ann Arbor 密西根州 8 哥伦比亚大学 Columbia University - College of Physicians and Surgeons 纽约州 8 史丹佛大学 Stanford University 加利福尼亚州 10 华盛顿大学 University of Washington 华盛顿州 还是忍不住贴一下中国的 1.第一层次:医学霸主 中国协和医科大学 2.第二层次:南北医学双雄 北京医科大学(北京大学) 上海医科大学(复旦大学) 3.第三层次:军地医学四大精英 A.地方医学四大精英 同济医科大学(华中科技大学) 中山医科大学(中山大学) 华西医科大学(四川大学) 湖南医科大学既湘雅医学院(中南大学) B.军队医学四大精英 第一军医大学(已转入地方现为南方医科大学) 第二军医大学(据传将转入地方并入同济大学) 第三军医大学(据传将成为军队唯一的医科大学) 第四军医大学(据传将转入地方独立办学) 4.第四层次:医学十一大金刚 首都医科大学 中国医科大学(据传将并入东北大学) 西安医科大学(西安交通大学) 哈尔滨医科大学 上海第二医科大学(上海交通大学) 山东医科大学(山东大学) 白求恩医科大学(吉林大学) 浙江医科大学(浙江大学) 天津医科大学 重庆医科大学 南京医科大学 还有医院 http://www.jk58.com/hospital/ 美国医院2007排名 US News & World Report’s top honor roll: 1. Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore 2. Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. 3. UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles 4. Cleveland Clinic 5. Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston 6. New York-Presbyterian University Hospital of Columbia and Cornell 7. University of California, San Francisco Medical Center 7. Duke University Medical Center, Durham. N.C. 9. Barnes-Jewish Hospital/Washington University, St. Louis 10. Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston 11. University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle 12. Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 13. University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 14. University of Michigan Hospitals and Health Centers, Ann Arbor 15. Stanford Hospital and Clinics 15. Yale-New Haven Hospital, New Haven, Conn. 17. Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles 18. University of Chicago Medical Center 2007年度"全美最佳医院"排名 于2007年7月23日出版的《美国新闻与世界报道》杂志封面故事将公布"2007版全美最佳医院"的排名结果。此项活动开始于1990年，今年已经是连续评比第18届了。今年雄踞总排名第一位的仍旧是约翰霍普金斯医院（Johns Hopkins Hospital），这已经是这家顶级医院连续16年在此项排名中夺魁。 今年的评选由RTI国际公司制作，该公司是位于纽约州三角研究园区内的领先专业数据公司。评选覆盖16个医学专科领域，具体如下： ? Cancer（肿瘤科） ? Neurology and Neurosurgery(神经和神经外科) ? Digestive Disorders（消化病科） ? Ophthalmology（眼科） ? Ear, Nose, and Throat（耳鼻喉科） ? Orthopedics（整形科） ? Endocrinology（内分泌科） ? Psychiatry（心理科） ? Geriatrics（老年病科） ? Rehabilitation（康复科） ? Gynecology（妇科） ? Respiratory Disorders（呼吸科） ? Heart and Heart Surgery（心脏和心脏外科） ? Rheumatology（风湿科） ? Kidney Disease （肾病科） ? Urology（泌尿科） 评比的办法大致如下： 16个专科领域中，有12个是根据数据统计进行评比，这些数据包括三个方面：声誉度、死亡率和其他医疗相关指标。 另外4个专业领域因为和死亡率相关性较小，所以仅仅采取声誉度作为评比依据。 各个方面的评比大致如下： 具体办法（Methodology）请参阅： http://health.usnews.com/usnews/health/articles/070715/23meth.htm 声誉度 从获得美国医学会资格认证的85万名执业医生中随机挑选相应专业的200名医师进行问卷调查，请他们列出五所治疗本领域疑难杂症最好的医院，而不考虑成本和地理位置等因素（包括不提名自己所在医院）。"声誉度"的得分由2005，2006，2007三年里选择该医院的医生综合百分比计算得出。 死亡率 死亡率的计算是根据2003，2004和2005年三年里，罹患某种疾病的医保病人实际死亡数与预计死亡数之比，预计死亡率中修正了严重病例的情况（严重程度调整系数源于3M健康信息系统软件），小于1意味着好于预期，反之则表示较预期更差。死亡病例应该是在入院治疗后30天以内发生的，不过癌症死亡率是从收治到放弃治疗的时间内列入计算。 其他医护相关指标 这项指标集中反应了服务质量，例如病人数量，相对护理人员数量，技术先进性和相关职业协会的评价。其中的许多数据来自美国医院协会2005年的会员调查。 评比结果 在所有参与评选的5, 462家医院中，仅仅173家医院在一个及一个以上的专业领域达到评价水准，即在相应专业领域名列前茅。这些医院有着许多共同之处：经常收治一些最难治愈的病人，并且进行实验室到临床的过渡性研究，代表了医学发展的最前沿。因为政府不愿提供必需的相关数据，本次评选没有将军队和退伍军人医院列入考虑。在这173家医院中，仅仅只有18家达到了最终的超级精英"荣誉榜"（Honor Roll），这些医院在至少六个专科排名中位列第一或者第二。 算了你自己看吧http://www.csaol.cn/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=25 还有http://hi.baidu.com/iask1985/blog/item/6a6ea651ca1b7218367abe1d.html
学科类单词有哪些？
Chinese语文 English英语 Japanese日语 mathematics数学 science科学 gymnastics体育 history历史 algebra代数 geometry几何 geography地理 biology生物 chemistry化学 biochemistry生物化学 physics物理 physical geography地球物理 literature文学 sociology社会学 linguistics语言学 psycology心理学 philosophy哲学 engineering工程学 medicine医学 social science社会科学 agriculture农学 astronomy天文学 economics经济学 politics政治学 comercial science商学 哲学 Philosophy 逻辑学 Logic 伦理学 Ethics 美学 Aesthetics 宗教学 Science of Religion 经济学 Economics 统计学 Statistics 数量经济学 Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称 英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学 National Defense Economics 法学 Law 法律史 Legal History 环境与资源保护法学 Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law 政治学 Political Science 政治学理论 Political Theory 中外政治制度 Chinese and Foreign Political Institution 教育学 Education 教育学 Education Science 教育学原理 Educational Principle 课程与教学论 Curriculum and Teaching Methodology 教育史 History of Education 心理学 Psychology 基础心理学 Basic Psychology 发展与心理学 Developmental and Educational Psychology 应用心理学 Applied Psychology 体育学 Science of Physical Culture and Sports 体育人文社会学 Humane and Sociological Science of Sports 运动人体科学 Human Movement Science 体育教育训练学 Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training 民族传统体育学 Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports 文学 Literature 中国语言文学 Chinese Literature 文艺学 Theory of Literature and Art 语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 汉语言文字学 Chinese Philology 中国古典文献学 Study of Chinese Classical Text 中国古代文学 Ancient Chinese Literature 中国现当代文学 Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature 中国少数民族语言文学 Chinese Ethnic Language and Literature 比较文学与世界文学 Comparative Literature and World Literature 外国语言文学 Foreign Languages and Literatures 英语语言文学 English Language and Literature 俄语语言文学 Russian Language and Literature 法语语言文学 French Language and Literature 德语语言文学 German Language and Literature 日语语言文学 Japanese Language and Literature 印度语言文学 Indian Language and Literature 西班牙语语言文学 Spanish Language and Literature 阿拉伯语语言文学 Arabic Language and Literature 欧洲语言文学 European Language and Literature 亚非语言文学 Asian-African Language and Literature 外国语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics in Foreign Languages 新闻传播学 Journalism and Communication 新闻学 Journalism 传播学 Communication 艺术学 Art 艺术学 Art Theory 音乐学 Music 美术学 Fine Arts 设计艺术学 Artistic Design 戏剧戏曲学 Theater and Chinese Traditional Opera 电影学 Film 广播电视艺术学 Radio and television Art 舞蹈学 Dance 历史学 History 历史学 History 史学理论及史学史 Historical Theories and History of Historical Science 考古学及博物馆学 Archaeology and Museology 历史地理学 Historical Geography 历史文献学(含敦煌学、古文字学) Studies of Historical Literature (including Paleography and Studies of Dunhuang) 专门史 History of Particular Subjects 中国古代史 Ancient Chinese History 中国近现代史 Modern and Contemporary Chinese History 世界史 World History 理学 Natural Science 数学 Mathematics 基础数学 Fundamental Mathematics 计算数学 Computational Mathematics 概率论与数理统计 Probability and Mathematical Statistics 应用数学 Applied mathematics 运筹学与控制论 Operational Research and Cybernetics 物理学 Physics 理论物理 Theoretical Physics 粒子物理与原子核物理 Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics 原子与分子物理 Atomic and Molecular Physics 等离子体物理 Plasma Physics 凝聚态物理 Condensed Matter Physics 声学 Acoustics 光学 Optics 无线电物理 Radio Physics 化学 Chemistry 无机化学 Inorganic Chemistry 分析化学 Analytical Chemistry 有机化学 Organic Chemistry 物理化学（含化学物理） Physical Chemistry (including Chemical Physics) 高分子化学与物理 Chemistry and Physics of Polymers 天文学 Astronomy 天体物理 Astrophysics 天体测量与天体力学 Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics 地理学 Geography 自然地理学 Physical Geography 人文地理学 Human Geography 地图学与地理信息系统 Cartography and Geography Information System 大气科学 Atmospheric Sciences 气象学 Meteorology 大气物理学与大气环境 Atmospheric Physics and Atmospheric Environment 海洋科学 Marine Sciences 物理海洋学 Physical Oceanography 海洋化学 Marine Chemistry 海洋生理学 Marine Biology 海洋地质学 Marine Geology 地球物理学 Geophysics 固体地球物理学 Solid Earth Physics 空间物理学 Space Physics 地质学 Geology 矿物学、岩石学、矿床学 Mineralogy, Petrology, Mineral Deposit Geology 地球化学 Geochemistry 古生物学与地层学（含古人类学） Paleontology and Stratigraphy (including Paleoanthropology) 构造地质学 Structural Geology 第四纪地质学 Quaternary Geology 生物学 Biology 植物学 Botany 动物学 Zoology 生理学 Physiology 水生生物学 Hydrobiology 微生物学 Microbiology 神经生物学 Neurobiology 遗传学 Genetics 发育生物学 Developmental Biology 细胞生物学 Cell Biology 生物化学与分子生物学 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 生物物理学 Biophysics 生态学 Ecology 系统科学 Systems Science 系统理论 Systems Theory 系统分析与集成 Systems Analysis and Integration 科学技术史 History of Science and Technology 工学 Engineering 力学 Mechanics 一般力学与力学基础 General and Fundamental Mechanics 固体力学 Solid Mechanics 流体力学 Fluid Mechanics 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics 机械工程 Mechanical Engineering 机械制造及其自动化 Mechanical Manufacture and Automation 机械电子工程 Mechatronic Engineering 机械设计与理论 Mechanical Design and Theory 车辆工程 Vehicle Engineering 光学工程 Optical Engineering 仪器科学与技术 Instrument Science and Technology 精密仪器及机械 Precision Instrument and Machinery 测试计量技术及仪器 Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments 材料科学与工程 Materials Science and Engineering 材料物理与化学 Materials Physics and Chemistry 材料学 Materialogy 材料加工工程 Materials Processing Engineering 冶金工程 Metallurgical Engineering 冶金物理化学 Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy 钢铁冶金 Ferrous Metallurgy 有色金属冶金 Non-ferrous Metallurgy 动力工程及工程热物理 Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics 工程热物理 Engineering Thermophysics 热能工程 Thermal Power Engineering 动力机械及工程 Power Machinery and Engineering 流体机械及工程 Fluid Machinery and Engineering 制冷及低温工程 Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering 化工过程机械 Chemical Process Equipment 电气工程 Electrical Engineering 电机与电器 Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus 电力系统及其自动化 Power System and its Automation 高电压与绝缘技术 High Voltage and Insulation Technology 电力电子与电力传动 Power Electronics and Power Drives 电工理论与新技术 Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering 电子科学与技术 Electronics Science and Technology 物理电子学 Physical Electronics 电路与系统 Circuits and Systems 微电子学与固体电子学 Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics 电磁场与微波技术 Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology 信息与通信工程 Information and Communication Engineering 通信与信息系统 Communication and Information Systems 信号与信息处理 Signal and Information Processing 控制科学与工程 Control Science and Engineering 控制理论与控制工程 Control Theory and Control Engineering 检测技术与自动化装置 Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment 系统工程 Systems Engineering 模式识别与智能系统 Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems 导航、制导与控制 Navigation, Guidance and Control 计算机科学与技术 Computer Science and Technology 计算机软件与理论 Computer Software and Theory 计算机系统结构 Computer Systems Organization 计算机应用技术 Computer Applied Technology 建筑学 Architecture 建筑历史与理论 Architectural History and Theory 建筑设计及其理论 Architectural Design and Theory 城市规划与设计（含风景园林规划与设计） Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design) 建筑技术科学 Building Technology Science 土木工程 Civil Engineering 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering 结构工程 Structural Engineering 市政工程 Municipal Engineering 供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程 Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering 防灾减灾工程及防护工程 Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering 桥梁与隧道工程 Bridge and Tunnel Engineering 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering 水文学及水资源 Hydrology and Water Resources 水力学及河流动力学 Hydraulics and River Dynamics 水工结构工程 Hydraulic Structure Engineering 水利水电工程 Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering 港口、海岸及近海工程 Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering 测绘科学与技术 Surveying and Mapping 大地测量学与测量工程 Geodesy and Survey Engineering 摄影测量与遥感 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 地图制图学与地理信息工程 Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering 化学工程与技术 Chemical Engineering and Technology 化学工程 Chemical Engineering 化学工艺 Chemical Technology 生物化工 Biochemical Engineering 应用化学 Applied Chemistry 工业催化 Industrial Catalysis 地质资源与地质工程 Geological Resources and Geological Engineering 矿产普查与勘探 Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration 地球探测与信息技术 Geodetection and Information Technology 地质工程 Geological Engineering 矿业工程 Mineral Engineering 采矿工程 Mining Engineering 矿物加工工程 Mineral Processing Engineering 安全技术及工程 Safety Technology and Engineering 石油与天然气工程 Oil and Natural Gas Engineering 油气井工程 Oil-Gas Well Engineering 油气田开发工程 Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering 油气储运工程 Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering 纺织科学与工程 Textile Science and Engineering 纺织工程 Textile Engineering 纺织材料与纺织品设计 Textile Material and Textiles Design 纺织化学与染整工程 Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering 服装设计与工程 Clothing Design and Engineering 轻工技术与工程 The Light Industry Technology and Engineering 制浆造纸工程 Pulp and Paper Engineering 制糖工程 Sugar Engineering 发酵工程 Fermentation Engineering 皮革化学与工程 Leather Chemistry and Engineering 交通运输工程 Communication and Transportation Engineering 道路与铁道工程 Highway and Railway Engineering 交通信息工程及控制 Traffic Information Engineering & Control 交通运输规划与管理 Transportation Planning and Management 载运工具运用工程 Vehicle Operation Engineering 船舶与海洋工程 Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering 船舶与海洋结构物设计制造 Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure 轮机工程 Marine Engine Engineering 水声工程 Underwater Acoustics Engineering 航空宇航科学与技术 Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology 飞行器设计 Flight Vehicle Design 航空宇航推进理论与工程 Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering 航空宇航器制造工程 Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle 人机与环境工程 Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering 兵器科学与技术 Armament Science and Technology 武器系统与运用工程 Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering 兵器发射理论与技术 Armament Launch Theory and Technology 火炮、自动武器与弹药工程 Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering 军事化学与烟火技术 Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics 核科学与技术 Nuclear Science and Technology 核能科学与工程 Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering 核燃料循环与材料 Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials 核技术及应用 Nuclear Technology and Applications 辐射防护 Radiation and Environmental Protection 农业工程 Agricultural Engineering 农业机械化工程 Agricultural Mechanization Engineering 农业水土工程 Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering 农业生物环境与能源工
求高手翻译，翻译成英文，如果翻译的好，还会加50悬赏值
Admittedly, a drama, contradictions can not be fundamentally changed the doctor-patient medical predicament and even TV dramas, but at least the "intention" of this topic is not only a social topic. As we all know, China's health care system needs to be improved, extremely uneven distribution of medical resources. "Intention," the story took place in Shanghai, and select "neurosurgery", which is already relatively far away from the physician-patient conflicts in the general sense. Even so, this drama can not be avoided medical trouble, red envelope, embracing excessive medical procedures are very complicated paperwork journey and other practical problems. Interpretation of China's medical status quo, of course, is the "intention" the most arresting people point plays itself does not avoid this sensitive topic. Does have a lot of "hidden rules" in the drama show, such as the departments have their own "small treasuries", pharmaceutical representatives into hospital marketing, annoying to see a doctor to see a doctor to see a doctor difficult trouble, department director in order to prevent sued repeatedly told subordinates: "The attention and families of conversation skills, the success of 95%, 5% failure, and not allowed to speak, should be digital blurring ... the concept of "If you are patient, you will see in which grievances they received. At the same time, 66 did not totally on the patient's side, the blind to guide such a negative emotional catharsis. More to show the same the "Biequ doctor: to save the patient life, did not wait for the families of signature on the surgery the doctors, and ultimately forced to resign; medical point level allows the probability of accident, they tend to eat the patient's family lawsuit ; marry married less than his wife's medical staff, and so on. If you are a doctor, you will see in them their own helplessness. The final sixty-six release of "dwelling" lack of warmth - empathy understanding and look forward to restructuring. A good way to appeal to the confrontation between the physician-patient relationship, First refactoring trust. We do the doctors with triple standard: first re-called life-saving, like a technician, to cure, at most, add a little service with a smile. Called second tier of humane care, not only to cure, you have the heart of compassion, you have to be patient when their loved ones. The third prong, that is, into the soul of the patient's do the spiritual pillar of the patient. Life can not always take advantage of disadvantage is life - part. As - a doctor, first of all, you have ER, followed by benevolence. This world there are three things human is the most important faith, hope, love, these three words I can see the best interpretation of the Hospital.
什么词语的意思是感叹佩服？？
Dream From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Dream (disambiguation). "Dreams" and "Dreaming" redirect here. For other uses, see Dreams (disambiguation) and Dreaming (disambiguation). A dream is a hallucinatory experience involving a sequence of images, sounds, ideas, emotions, or other sensations usually during sleep, especially REM sleep. The events of dreams are often impossible, or unlikely to occur, in physical reality: they are also outside the control of the dreamer. The exception to this is known as lucid dreaming, in which dreamers realize that they are dreaming, and are sometimes capable of changing their dream environment and controlling various aspects of the dream. The dream environment is often much more realistic in a lucid dream, and the senses heightened. Contents [hide] * 1 Neurology of dreams o 1.1 Stages of sleep o 1.2 Discovery of REM o 1.3 Continual-activation theory o 1.4 Dreams and memory + 1.4.1 Hippocampus and memory o 1.5 Functions of dreams * 2 Cultural history * 3 Dream content o 3.1 Emotions o 3.2 Gender differences o 3.3 Sexual content o 3.4 Recurring dreams o 3.5 Common themes o 3.6 Disease-Associated Differences * 4 Dream interpretation * 5 Other associated phenomena o 5.1 Lucid dreaming o 5.2 Dreams of absent-minded transgression o 5.3 Dreaming as a skeptical argument o 5.4 Recalling dreams o 5.5 Déjà vu o 5.6 Dream incorporation * 6 See also * 7 References o 7.1 Cited o 7.2 General * 8 Literature o 8.1 Classical texts o 8.2 Cultural and literary history of the dream o 8.3 Psychology and psychotherapy o 8.4 Lucid dreaming o 8.5 Dreams and esotericism * 9 External links [edit] Neurology of dreams There is no universally agreed biological definition of dreaming. Dreaming can sometimes seem so realistic lucid dreamers often do not know if they are indeed dreaming. General observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-remembered dreams during non-REM sleep are normally more mundane in comparison.[1] During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming[2] (which is about 2 hours each night[3]). It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind. [edit] Stages of sleep When the body decides that it is time to sleep, neurons near the eyes begin to send signals throughout the body. Dr. Hobson explains that these neurons are located in such close proximity to neurons that control eyelid muscles that the eyelids begin to grow heavy.[4] Glands begin to secrete a hormone that helps induce sleep and neurons send signals to the spinal cord which cause the body to relax. During sleep the body passes through four different stages each differing in length and degree of sleep. REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep is when the majority of dreams takes place. Dreams tend to last for the entire REM cycle ranging from about ten to twenty-five minutes. Dreams usually occur during these regular sleep cycles, but they may also occur at other times, such as when one falls asleep or begins to awaken.[5] The other three stages are called NREM (non-rapid-eye-movement) sleep. These four stages repeat throughout sleep but in different lengths of time. Infants have about twice as much REM sleep as adults.[6] [edit] Discovery of REM EEG showing brainwaves during REM sleep EEG showing brainwaves during REM sleep In 1953 Eugene Aserinsky discovered REM sleep while working in the lab of his PhD advisor. Aserinsky noticed that the sleepers' eyes fluttered beneath their closed eyelids, later using a polygraph machine to record their brain waves during these periods. In one session he awakened a subject who was crying out during REM and confirmed his suspicion that dreaming was occurring.[7] In 1953 Aserinsky and his advisor published the ground-breaking study in Science.[8] In 1976 J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarly proposed a new theory that changed dream research, challenging the previously held Freudian view of dreams as subconscious wishes to be interpreted. The activation synthesis theory asserts that the sensory experiences are fabricated by the cortex as a means of interpreting chaotic signals from the pons. They propose that in REM sleep, the ascending cholinergic PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves stimulate higher midbrain and forebrain cortical structures, producing rapid eye movements. The activated forebrain then synthesizes the dream out of this internally generated information. They assume that the same structures that induce REM sleep also generate sensory information. Hobson and McCarly's 1976 research suggested that the signals interpreted as dreams originated in the brain stem during REM sleep. However, research by Mark Solms suggests that dreams are generated in the forebrain, and that REM sleep and dreaming are not directly related.[9] While working in the neurosurgery department at hospitals in Johannesburg and London, Solms had access to patients with various brain injuries. He began to question patients about their dreams and confirmed that patients with damage to the parietal lobe stopped dreaming; this finding was in line with Hobson's 1977 theory. However, Solms did not encounter cases of loss of dreaming with patients having brain stem damage. This observation forced him to question Hobson's prevailing theory which marked the brain stem as the source of the signals interpreted as dreams. Solms viewed the idea of dreaming as a function of many complex brain structures as validating Freudian dream theory, an idea that drew criticism from Hobson.[10] [edit] Continual-activation theory Combining Hobson's activation synthesis hypothesis with Solms's findings, the continual-activation theory of dreaming presented by Jie Zhang proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis; at the same time, dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. Zhang hypothesizes that the function of sleep is to process, encode and transfer the data from the temporary memory to the long-term memory, though there is not much evidence backing up this so-called "consolidation." NREM sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM sleep processes the unconscious related memory (procedural memory). Zhang assumes that during REM sleep, the unconscious part of a brain is busy processing the procedural memory; meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain will descend to a very low level as the inputs from the sensory are basically disconnected. This will trigger the "continual-activation" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the conscious part of the brain. Zhang suggests that this pulse-like brain activation is the inducer of each dream. He proposes that, with the involvement of the brain associative thinking system, dreaming is, thereafter, self-maintained with the dreamer's own thinking until the next pulse of memory insertion. This explains why dreams have both characteristics of continuity (within a dream) and sudden changes (between two dreams).[11][12] [edit] Dreams and memory Eugen Tarnow suggests that dreams are ever-present excitations of long-term memory, even during waking life. The strangeness of dreams is due to the format of long-term memory, reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen’s findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams. During waking life an executive function interprets long term memory consistent with reality checking. Tarnow's theory is a reworking of Freud's theory of dreams in which Freud's unconscious is replaced with the long-term memory system and Freud's “Dream Work” describes the structure of long-term memory.[13] Location of hippocampus Location of hippocampus [edit] Hippocampus and memory A 2001 study showed evidence that illogical locations, characters, and dream flow may help the brain strengthen the linking and consolidation of semantic memories. These conditions may occur because, during REM sleep, the flow of information between the hippocampus and neocortex is reduced.[14] Increasing levels of the stress hormone Cortisol late in sleep (often during REM sleep) cause this decreased communication. One stage of memory consolidation is the linking of distant but related memories. Payne and Nadel hypothesize that these memories are then consolidated into a smooth narrative, similar to a process that happens when memories are created under stress.[15] [edit] Functions of dreams There are many hypotheses about the function of dreams. Freud proposed that one function of dreams is to protect our sleep. He believed that it was the purpose of dreams to hold one’s attention so as not to awaken from any outside stimuli.[16] During the night there may be many external stimuli bombarding the senses but the mind interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream in order to ensure continued sleep.[17] The mind will, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying. Dreams may also allow the repressed parts of the mind to be satisfied through fantasy while keeping the conscious mind from thoughts that would suddenly cause one to awaken from shock.[18] Freud suggested that bad dreams let the brain learn to gain control over emotions resulting from distressing experiences. [16] Dreams also let the mind express things that would normally be suppressed in the waking world, thus keeping itself in harmony. Dreams may also offer a view at how future events might proceed; this is similar to running future events through the mind, for instance: a work presentation, a job interview, or a first date. Jung suggested that dreams may compensate for one-sided attitudes held in waking consciousness.[19] Ferenczi[20] proposed that the dream, when told, may communicate something that is not being said outright. There have also been analogies made with the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are off-line. Dreams may remove parasitic nodes and other "junk" from the mind during sleep. [21] [22] Dreams may also create new ideas through the generation of random thought mutations. Some of these may be rejected by the mind as useless, while others may be seen as valuable and retained. Blechner[23] calls this the theory of "Oneiric Darwinism." Dreams may also regulate mood. [24] Hartmann [25] says dreams may function like psychotherapy, by "making connections in a safe place" and allowing the dreamer to integrate thoughts that may be dissociated during waking life. [edit] Cultural history Jacob's dream of a ladder of angels Jacob's dream of a ladder of angels Dreams have a long history both as a subject of conjecture and as a source of inspiration. Throughout their history, people have sought meaning in dreams or divination through dreams. They have been described physiologically as a response to neural processes during sleep, psychologically as reflections of the subconscious, and spiritually as messages from God or predictions of the future. Many cultures practiced dream incubation, with the intention of cultivating dreams that were prophetic or contained messages from the divine. [edit] Dream content From the 1940s to 1985, Calvin S. Hall collected more than 50,000 dream reports at Western Reserve University. In 1966 Hall and Van De Castle published The content analysis of dreams in which they outlined a coding system to study 1,000 dream reports from college students.[26] It was found that people all over the world dream of mostly the same things. Hall's complete dream reports became publicly available in the mid-1990s by Hall's protégé William Domhoff allowing further different annylisis. [edit] Emotions The most common emotion experienced in dreams is anxiety. Negative emotions are more common than positive feelings.[26] Some ethnic groups like the Yir Yoront showed an abnormally high percentage of dreams of an aggressive nature. The U.S. ranks the highest amongst industrialized nations for aggression in dreams with 50 percent of U.S. males reporting aggression in dreams, compared to 32 percent for Dutch men.[26] [edit] Gender differences It is believed that in men's dreams an average of 70 percent of the characters are other men, while a female's dreams contain an equal number of men and women.[27] Men generally had more aggressive feelings in their dreams than women, and children's dreams did not have very much aggression until they reached teen age. These findings parallel much of the current research on gender and gender role comparisons in aggressive behavior. Rather than showing a complementary or compensatory aggressive style, this study supports the view that there is a continuity between our conscious and unconscious styles and personalities. [edit] Sexual content The Hall data analysis shows that sexual dreams show up no more than 10 percent of the time and are more prevalent in young to mid teens[26]. Another study showed that 8% of men's and women's dreams have sexual content[28]. [edit] Recurring dreams While the content of most dreams is dreamt only once, many people experience recurring dreams—that is, the same dream narrative is experienced over different occasions of sleep. Up to 70% of females and 65% of males report recurrent dreams.[29] [edit] Common themes Content-analysis studies scientists have identified common reported themes in dreams. These include: situations relating to school, being chased, running slowly/inplace, sexual experiences, falling, arriving too late, a person now alive being dead, teeth falling out, flying, embarrassing moments, failing an examination, or a car accident. Twelve percent of people dream only in black and white.[30] [edit] Disease-Associated Differences There have been many differences in how people dream involving different diseases (normally only neurological diseases) one might have. For instance, people with Synesthesia have never reported black-and-white dreaming, and often have a difficult time imagining the idea of dreaming in black and white only.[citation needed] [edit] Dream interpretation Main article: Dream interpretation Both Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung identify dreams as an interaction between the unconscious and the conscious. They also assert together that the unconscious is the dominant force of the dream, and in dreams it conveys its own mental activity to the perceptive faculty. While Freud felt that there was an active censorship against the unconscious even during sleep, Jung argued that the dream's bizarre quality is an efficient language, comparable to poetry and uniquely capable of revealing the underlying meaning. Fritz Perls presented his theory of dreams as part of the holistic nature of Gestalt therapy. Dreams are seen as projections of parts of the self that have been ignored, rejected or suppressed.[31] Jung argued that one could consider every person in the dream to represent an aspect of the dreamer, which he called the subjective approach to dreams. Perls expanded this point of view to say that even inanimate objects in the dream may represent aspects of the dreamer. The dreamer may therefore be asked to imagine being an object in the dream and to describe it, in order to bring into awareness the characteristics of the object that correspond with the dreamer's personality. [edit] Other associated phenomena [edit] Lucid dreaming Main article: Lucid dreaming Lucid dreaming is the conscious perception of one's state while dreaming. In this state the dreamer has control over characters and the environment of the dream as well as themselves.[32] The occurrence of lucid dreaming has been scientifically verified.[33] [edit] Dreams of absent-minded transgression Dreams of absent-minded transgression (DAMT) are dreams wherein the dreamer absentmindedly performs an action that he or she has been trying to stop (one classic example is of a quitting smoker having dreams of lighting a cigarette). Subjects who have had DAMT have reported awaking with intense feelings of guilt. Some studies have shown that DAMT are positively related with successfully stopping the behavior, when compared to control subjects who did not experience these dreams.[34] [edit] Dreaming as a skeptical argument Main article: dream argument While one dreams a non-lucid dream, one will not realize one is dreaming (one classic example is a child dreaming that they are using the toilet and end up wetting the bed because they don't realize that they are in a dream). This has led philosophers to the idea that one could be dreaming right now (or at least one cannot be certain that one is not dreaming). First formally introduced by Zhuangzi and popularized by Hindu beliefs, the dream argument has become one of the most popular skeptical hypotheses. Buddhism, one of the major religions and philosophies in the world, makes most use of this argument[citation needed]. It was formally introduced to western philosophy by Descartes in the 17th century in his Meditations on First Philosophy. [edit] Recalling dreams According to Craig Hamilton-Parker, [35] author of Fantasy Dreaming, many humans find certain dreams extremely difficult to recall. According to David Koulack in "To Catch A Dream," researchers refer to these types of dreams as "no content dream reports." It is thought that such dreams are characterized by relatively little affect. According to Koulack, factors such as salience, arousal and interference play a role in dream recall and dream recall failure. According to Henry Reed, author of Dream Medicine, a useful technique to improve dream recall is to keep a dream journal. Stephen LaBerge, author of Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming, also suggests that one must lie perfectly still upon awaking from a dream, not letting concerns of the day occupy the mind. It is quite common to not remember much of what has just been dreamed, but LaBerge maintains that with sufficient concentration, the entire dream may be recalled. [edit] Déjà vu Main article: Déjà vu The theory of déjà vu dealing with dreams indicates that the feeling of having previously seen or experienced something could be attributed to having dreamt about a similar situation or place, and forgetting about it until one seems to be mysteriously reminded of the situation or place while awake. [edit] Dream incorporation In one use of the term, "dream incorporation" is a phenomenon whereby an external stimulus, usually an auditory one, becomes a part of a dream, eventually then awakening the dreamer. There is a famous painting by Salvador Dalí that depicts this concept, titled "Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening" (1944). The term "dream incorporation" is also used in research examining the degree to which preceding daytime events become elements of dreams. Recent studies suggest that events in the day immediately preceding, and those about a week before, have the most influence [36]. +feng aaaaa
下面这篇短文请翻译一下。
但是有一天妈妈永远改变了我们的世界。她关掉了电视。我们的母亲只能为打通小学三年级。但是,她是太亮,比我们聪明的男孩知道和他在一起。她已经注意到一件在市郊住宅,但她还是打扫的书。所以她回家了一天,啪的一声折断了电视,坐在我们下来,并解释说她的儿子们去创造他们自己的生活。“你孩子要读两本书每个星期,”她说。“你准备写一份报告,对你读的是什么。”